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Chapter Two
Members THE flags are flying at Sunbury Court as the members of the High Council begin to arrive. They come from the four corners of the earth, the majority of them arriving at the conveniently situated Heathrow airport. They greet each other warmly, and there is a buzz of animated conversation punctuated by bursts of laughter as refreshments are served. At the time of our visit to the High Council the General in office is a married man, and he and his wife – the World President of Women’s Ministries – are there to welcome the members. The settling-in process is quickly accomplished. In the past some members have stayed in a hotel two miles further down the road in the village of Sunbury-on-Thames. But with new residential accommodation built at Sunbury Court – accommodation that will also house the International College for Officers – all members will in future reside at Sunbury Court. The sessions of the High Council will be held in the octagonal conference building constructed in 1999 for use by the Council. All High Councils have been held at Sunbury Court except for those of 1934 and 1939 which were held at the Clapton Centre, and that of 2013 which was held at the Renaissance Hotel near Heathrow because Sunbury Court was being refurbished at that time. As members arrive they check the seating arrangements in the conference room, which are in order of seniority.1 Many members have met before at international conferences and at zonal and other more localised leaders’ conferences, which are now programmed regularly. In addition, by virtue of being members 11
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of the High Council they are all members of the General’s Consultative Council, an advisory body to the General that meets under his or her chairmanship three times a year, and have therefore had opportunities to interact with each other in this capacity. These meetings, also held at Sunbury Court, are attended by all commissioners serving at International Headquarters together with representative members from overseas, who come on a rota basis. However, all members take part in every meeting of the General’s Consultative Council, even if they are not physically present, as they receive the agenda and minutes electronically and can make submissions. Pre-High Council conference The first few days at Sunbury Court will consist of a pre-High Council conference – a plenary meeting of the General’s Consultative Council – before the High Council itself is constituted. Pre-High Council conferences have been part of the pattern from the earliest days. The dynamics of such conferences are unusual in that the General will be leaving office within a few weeks – thus making it inappropriate for important decisions about the future to be taken – and the next General, though as yet unidentified, is on past precedent almost certainly seated somewhere in the conference room. However, such conferences enable retiring Generals to render account of their stewardship and allow key issues facing the Army to be aired. The conferences also enable members to get to know each other at a deeper level. Even at this early stage there will be members who are thought to be potential candidates for the generalship, and though nothing is said openly, any interventions by them in the discussions are especially noted by the other members. At the first electoral High Council, held in 1934, the conference took place after the High Council had concluded, creating the even more unusual situation of both a General and a General-elect being present. The dynamics must have been even more difficult. All eyes would have been on General-elect Evangeline Booth – who would 12
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not have had time to master the details of the matters being discussed – rather than on General Edward Higgins who would shortly be retiring. It is therefore no surprise that this pattern was not repeated. A sign of the greater internationalism of The Salvation Army these days is that not all members of the High Council are fluent in English. The pre-High Council conference gives them opportunity to become acquainted with the provisions made for translation. Members have individual microphones on their desks and everything that is spoken in the council chamber is simultaneously translated into the required languages by the panel of translators located outside the room. The members needing translation hear their language through earphones. When such members wish to contribute to the discussion they simply speak into their desk microphone in their own language and the English translation comes over the loudspeakers in the conference room. When the pre-High Council conference concludes, the General and his wife leave Sunbury Court. They will meet with the members again when the General leads the public welcome meeting to the High Council, but apart from that have no part to play in the deliberations of the Council until they return to welcome the new General. The joyful public welcome to the High Council is celebrated in a capacious London venue and is one of the high points on the Salvation Army calendar. As the Salvationists present study the photos of the members in the printed programme and look at them seated on the platform, they would be less than human if they did not wonder who the next General might be! Opening of the High Council On the morning that the actual High Council opens, it is the Chief of the Staff, as the convenor of the Council in accordance with the Salvation Army Act 1980, who is in charge. The Chief of the Staff leads a time of worship and prayer that from the very opening moment focuses the Council on the spiritual nature of the task for which it has been summoned. Fervent prayers that 13
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God will direct and guide the Council in all of its deliberations are offered by members. At the conclusion of the time of prayer, the Chief of the Staff draws the attention of the Council to a Memorandum by the Chief of the Staff, Opening Procedures of a High Council, and asks the Council to adopt this by a show of hands. The Chief of the Staff then asks the High Council formally to approve non-member officers who will be present during the deliberations of the Council – usually the recorder, assistant recorder (who in recent High Councils has also been the High Council communications officer), translators, sound system operator, and the legal adviser to the High Council who is on call and attends when needed. The communications officer is responsible for preparing the news releases from the High Council and for responding to messages received by the Council. The roll is then called, and members respond with ‘present’ as their names are called. When it is confirmed that all officers eligible for membership of the High Council have been duly summoned, and that only those summoned are in attendance as members of the Council, the person appointed to be the legal adviser to the High Council declares that the High Council ‘has been lawfully convened according to the requirements of the Salvation Army Act 1980 as amended by the Deeds of Variation of 1995, 2005 and 2010’. Membership criteria A High Council is made up of those officers who, on the ‘qualifying date’, meet the criteria for membership. The qualifying date normally falls exactly four months to the day before the General is due to retire. All who meet the criteria on that date are summoned to the High Council – even if they are due to retire from active service the very next day. The High Council is usually called to meet about seven weeks after the qualifying date, thus allowing a similar interval after it has concluded its deliberations before the new General enters office. In a nutshell, the historical criteria for membership of the High 14
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Council have been ‘all commissioners and all territorial commanders’. With some minor variations these criteria have remained remarkably consistent throughout the years, the biggest change not coming until February 2010. The membership of the High Council was originally established by the 1904 Supplementary Deed, but changes were introduced in 1930, 1995 and 2010. In this chapter we will look at each stage in turn. 1904 – The original membership criteria In the 1904 Supplementary Deed the membership of the Council was defined as: The Chief of the Staff l The Secretary for Foreign Affairs l All the commissioners of the Army not being commissioners on the retired list l All the officers holding territorial commands in the Army in any part of the world, whatever their rank in the Army. l
The Chief of the Staff had separate mention not only because of the status of this position but because in 1904 the Chief of the Staff was not a commissioner. He was plain ‘Mr Bramwell’. But this separate mention of the Chief of the Staff has been retained in all subsequent revisions of the membership. Why the Secretary for Foreign Affairs – who at the time was Commissioner T. Henry Howard – merited separate mention is not clear. It was presumably to accentuate the high status of the office – but the office was discontinued some years later and was replaced by one or more International Secretaries. The 1904 Deed furthermore decreed with respect to the attendance of commissioners and territorial commanders, that when ‘two persons being husband and wife, and holding commissions in respect of the same country or district, are entitled to be members of the High Council, they shall only have one vote, which shall be given by the husband as he may think fit if he alone is present or 15
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both are present, and shall be given by the wife as she may think fit only if she alone is present’. However, from this beginning through all the subsequent changes to the membership criteria, it has always been understood that members do not ‘represent’ the territories to which they are currently appointed, but are members because they are senior leaders. 1930 – Membership criteria changed in the light of the ‘1929’ experience In 1929 when the first High Council was called, the distinction between ‘territories’ and the smaller ‘commands’ was not as clear as it is today. William Booth had decreed in the 1904 Deed that all officers holding ‘territorial commands…whatever their rank’ should be summoned, and officers in charge of what today would be termed ‘commands’ were therefore also called. As a result the membership of the 1929 High Council was very diverse and, with seven lieut-colonels and three brigadiers present, ranged from the very senior to the comparatively junior. Considering that the High Council had been called to sit in judgement on the General, this broad range of membership was felt at the time (and subsequently) not to be appropriate. When the Commissioners Conference met in 1930 one of the pressing agenda items was therefore to restrict the membership of the High Council so that, should a similar situation arise again, the General would be judged only by his or her peers. The Advisory Commission on Constitutional Reform proposed that membership of the High Council should be limited to full commissioners only – excluding even lieut-commissioners. However, the Commissioners Conference felt this to be too extreme, and in the 1930 Deed of Variation (which varied the 1904 Supplementary Deed on this point) the following membership criteria were established: l l
The Chief of the Staff All the commissioners [including lieut-commissioners] 16
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l
All the officers who during the whole of the two years prior to the qualifying date shall have held the rank of full colonel, and shall at the qualifying date be holding territorial commands in any part of the world.
The requirement that territorial commanders who were not commissioners should be full colonels and should have held that rank for two years achieved the intended aim of limiting the High Council to the Army’s most senior officers. When in the early stages of the 1930 Commissioners Conference the option of having a separate electoral body was being discussed, the possibility of extending the electoral body to include ‘national and other representatives’ was considered. There was even a suggestion that ‘this body might be comprised of officers who themselves would be ineligible for election to the position of General’.2 But once the generic decision was taken that the High Council would have the dual function of potentially adjudicating on the General’s fitness for office as well as electing the next General, the emphasis of necessity was on the seniority of its members. A membership challenge An unanticipated challenge regarding membership occurred in the run-up to the 1974 High Council. With the unique organisational structure then operative in Great Britain, whereby the heads of the different branches of work reported direct to the General, the Governor of the Men’s Social Services, together with the Secretary for Trade at Salvationist Publishing and Supplies, Limited, and the Principal of the International Training College had always been members of previous High Councils. Their attendance had not for a second been questioned – for they had always been commissioners and were therefore clearly eligible on that ground. However, as part of the rethinking about administrative structures in Britain, which was to culminate in 1990 with the creation of the United Kingdom Territory, these three positions were already in the 1970s held by 17
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officers with the rank of full colonel. The burning question at the time of the 1974 High Council was therefore whether they were ‘territorial commanders’ and therefore still eligible to attend the High Council. The colonels in question presented submissions – one even taking independent legal advice – to the effect that they had the status of territorial commanders and should be summoned to the High Council. These branches of service within the UK, they argued, had always been considered to be ‘territories’. Their leaders were governed by Orders and Regulations for Territorial Commanders, they reported direct to the General, they had the same powers accorded to territorial commanders – such as being able to promote officers – and the administrative structure of their commands were those of a territory, with a chief secretary or general secretary as their second-in-command. The Army’s legal advisers took the line that, despite the similarities, these branches of services were not in fact ‘territories’. However, Commissioner Arnold Brown, who was the Chief of the Staff at the time and therefore responsible for summoning the High Council, decided to refer the question to ‘learned counsel’ – an expert legal adviser – in order to put the matter beyond dispute. He describes in his autobiography The Gate and The Light3 how he arrived at the Inns of Court to hear counsel’s opinion in the midst of a strike by electricity workers. The expert legal adviser handed Commissioner Arnold Brown a 10-page submission which the commissioner read in the faint light of a flickering candle. It ended: ‘It is my opinion that the officers in question are not qualified to receive summonses for, or to participate in, the meeting of the High Council.’ The point had been clearly made: the officers who had held these positions in the past had been members of the High Council not because of the appointments they held, but because they were commissioners. The leaders concerned accepted this legal verdict with good grace. It was a unique situation unlikely to arise again. However, in the light of this experience, General Erik Wickberg executed a deed poll 18
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which legally designated the territories and commands of The Salvation Army. This list has been continually updated since then by the General of the day executing a new deed poll whenever there is a change, however minor, to the name or status of a territory or command. Only the leaders of the territories (not commands) listed in the deed poll qualify for attendance at the High Council. The Salvation Army Act 1980 No chronological survey of criteria for High Council membership would be complete without mention of the Salvation Army Act of 1980, even though the Act did not change the membership of the Council. This major piece of legislation revoked the Foundation Deed of 1878 and the Supplementary Deed of 1904 together with the 1930 Variation Deed. It also repealed or amended certain provisions of the Salvation Army Acts 1931 to 1968. With respect to the High Council, the Salvation Army Act 1980 started virtually from scratch and it is now the legislative bedrock on which everything to do with the High Council rests. The details are set out in Schedule 4 of the Act. The General, with the agreement of more than two thirds of the commissioners, has the power to amend Schedule 4 without reference to Parliament. The Salvation Army Act 1980 retained in Schedule 4 the High Council membership criteria decided by the 1930 Commissioners Conference, namely, the Chief of the Staff, all commissioners and all territorial commanders holding the rank of colonel for two or more years. 1995 – Membership criteria adapted to match a new situation A major change to the composition of the High Council took place in the 1990s – and it happened without the criteria for membership changing! This remarkable and unexpected development deserves closer examination. Anyone who has studied the photos of High Councils that adorn the walls of Sunbury Court will have noticed the dramatic difference in the pictures from the 1999 Council onwards. The pictures of 19
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earlier High Councils are strongly male dominated, with very few women leaders in them, but from the 1999 High Council onwards women members are present in strength. Throughout its history the Army has been blessed with outstanding women leaders. William Booth is credited with quipping that his best men were women – and it was not without reason. Many of the largest and most demanding territorial commands have been held by women leaders, as has the leadership of the women’s social services and later the combined social services in the United Kingdom. The International College for Officers has also had women principals. At International Headquarters women commissioners have served as international secretaries and heads of key departments. Almost without exception, however, these women leaders have been single officers or widows. The only married woman to attend a High Council prior to the change revealed by the 1999 photo was Mrs General Bramwell (Florence) Booth, who in 1929 attended the High Council because she was a commissioner in her own right. These women leaders, however, have always been a small minority as compared with their male counterparts, a fact that the photos of earlier High Councils clearly reveal. In 1995 a revolution took place. In that year General Paul A. Rader decreed that all married women officers of whatever rank would hold rank in their own right. By that decision all married ‘Mrs Commissioners’ would henceforth be commissioners in their own right – and therefore became eligible to be members of the High Council. The consequence of that decision for the membership of the High Council became visible to the whole world when the next Council met in 1999. Furthermore, there was no question of just one vote per couple as the 1904 Supplementary Deed had stipulated. Every commissioner present had a vote. It is one of the ironies of the history of the High Council that the most radical change ever made to the composition of the Council was a by-product of a policy change that related only indirectly to the High Council. Yet that is how significant advances are sometimes 20
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made, for there is no doubt that the increased presence of women leaders has been a positive development. This sea change in the membership of the High Council required no amendment to the membership criteria set out in Schedule 4 of the Salvation Army Act 1980 to make it effective. Yet General Paul A. Rader, with the required concurrence of more than two thirds of the commissioners, nevertheless amended Schedule 4 in 1995 in order to deal with the new and unique situation of the spouse of a married General-in-office – who would of course be a commissioner in her (and potentially ‘his’) own right. The dilemma was this: should the spouse of the retiring General be a member of the High Council called to elect the General’s successor? A reasoned case could be made either way, but the eventual decision by the General was that the spouse should not be a member. With Schedule 4 needing to be amended in this way in 1995, it was also decided to take the opportunity to remove the restriction that a territorial commander must be a full colonel and have held that rank for two years. It was felt that this restriction had outlived its usefulness as it was now the practice for territorial commanders to hold that rank. There was also an additional factor. The ‘two years as colonel’ requirement had, over the years, kept a number of quite senior territorial commanders from attending the High Council, with some of them falling short of the requirement by narrow margins. This was a disappointment not only to the leaders concerned but to the Salvationists of the territories affected. Already in 1934, Colonel Charles Mackenzie, an American officer who had been the territorial commander of the Eastern India Territory for six years and who had attended the 1929 High Council as a lieutcolonel, was ineligible to attend the 1934 High Council because he was 12 days short of meeting the two-year requirement. With these changes, the membership criteria for the High Council set out in Schedule 4, as amended in 1995, became the following: l
The Chief of the Staff 21
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The commissioners with the exception of the commissioner who is the spouse of the General l The territorial commanders. l
2010 – A significant change to the membership criteria It is part of life and development that one change often leads to another. The already noted 1995 policy change in the rank system, by which married women commissioners became members of the High Council, brought in its wake a situation that was increasingly felt to be anomalous with respect to the membership of the High Council. At the High Councils held in 1999, 2002 and 2006, both spouses of married commissioner couples were present – by virtue of each being a commissioner – but married colonel territorial commanders were there on their own – because territories have only one territorial commander. However, with the passage of time, the view gained ground that in the case of married colonel territorial commanders both spouses should also be present. With the spouses of colonel territorial commanders not being commissioners and not being territorial commanders, the challenge was to define the status of such officers in a way that made them eligible for High Council membership. General Shaw Clifton resolved the dilemma in a pragmatic way by a Deed of Variation to Schedule 4 of the Salvation Army Act 1980, executed in February 2010. By this Deed of Variation membership of the High Council was widened to include a third category of officers, namely territorial presidents of women’s ministries. This change to Schedule 4 was accompanied by a Minute by the Chief of the Staff which decreed that the term president of women’s ministries would in future be applied solely to the spouse of a territorial commander. As a result of these linked twin amendments the spouses of colonel territorial commanders are now members of the High Council. This widening of High Council membership beyond the traditional ‘commissioners and territorial commanders’ categories 22
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is in fact the most significant change to the criteria for membership of the High Council since the 1904 Supplementary Deed which established the High Council. And with this change the 2011 High Council was the first to have more women than men as members. In consequence of the Variation Deed of February 2010 the criteria for membership of the High Council are now set out as follows in Schedule 4 of the Salvation Army Act 1980: 4. Subject to paragraph 4A below, the High Council shall consist of the following persons: (a) the Chief of the Staff at [the] qualifying date; (b) the Commissioners not on the retired list at such date; (c) those officers who at [the] qualifying date hold the appointment of territorial commander; and (d) those officers who at [the] qualifying date hold the appointment of territorial president of women’s ministries. 4A. Neither the General nor the spouse of the General shall be a Council Member.4
Further membership factors The significant change of increased female membership which the photos of successive High Councils reveal has been matched by another transformation. This is the increased membership of leaders from the developing parts of the world – something which is also apparent in the photographs. With more than half of the Army’s membership now being in Asia and Africa, it is no surprise that of the 117 members of the 2013 High Council, 19 were Asian and 21 were African. The photos also reveal the numerical growth that successive High Councils have seen, partly in consequence of the Army’s international expansion and partly due to the changes discussed in this chapter. From 1934 until 1994 the average size of a High Council was 46 members. In 1999, with the inclusion of all married women commissioners, membership rose to 74, and with the increased use of the rank of commissioner reached 100 in 2006. With the inclusion 23
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of territorial presidents of women’s ministries the 2011 High Council had 109 members, and that of 2013, 117 members. Election of the President Returning to the contemporary High Council we are observing, when the legal adviser to the High Council has declared that the Council has been lawfully convened and that only those who are legally eligible for membership are present, the Chief of the Staff supervises the election of a President. The procedures for this election are simple and are set out in the memorandum Opening Procedures of a High Council. When the President has been elected, the Chief of the Staff invites him or her to the platform and formally hands over the leadership of the Council.5 With this action the role of the Chief of the Staff is completed, and the Chief joins the other members in the body of the hall, taking a seat near to the platform as the most senior member present. For the President, however, things are just about to begin.
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