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Chapter Four
Nominations THE moment the President announces that nominations will now be called for, the weight of personal responsibility that begins to rest on each member becomes almost palpable. There is also a sense of relief. The time for theorising about rules is over. But choices have now to be made. The President reminds the members of the relevant clauses in the Orders of Procedure and asks the Council to pause for a time of reflection and prayer. A momentous part of the High Council is about to begin. Two ballot boxes are placed prominently in the council chamber. The President then begins the nomination process by calling on the Chief of the Staff, as the most senior member of the High Council, to collect his or her nomination paper. The Chief of the Staff proceeds to one of the two voting rooms that are part of the conference centre, writes on the nomination paper the name of the person he/she is nominating, folds the paper unsigned and returns to the council chamber to place the paper in one of the ballot boxes. Before the Chief of the Staff has returned, the President has already called the next most senior member, and as other names are called, a flow of members sets in, with the silence only being broken by the President or Vice-President calling the next name. There is no sense of rush whatever. Members of the Council sit quietly in reflection and prayer until the ballots have been cast. The process can take 50 minutes – sometimes even longer. The President then calls on the four tellers to count the nominations. The tellers take the ballot boxes to one of the voting rooms where they examine their contents. 39
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The only criterion for nomination specified in the Salvation Army Act 1980 is that the person nominated must be an officer of The Salvation Army. However, according to Schedule 4 (as amended in 2005) only those officers who have been nominated by three or more members of the High Council are deemed to have been nominated. It is therefore only these names that are counted as nominees. The tellers list the nominees in alphabetical order together with the number of nominations each has received. Some of the nomination papers are likely to be blank. The Orders of Procedure have made it clear that members are not obliged to make a nomination. The right to nominate for the office of General is a privilege, not an obligation, and members will have been reminded that if they feel uncertain as to whom to nominate it is perfectly in order to place a blank paper in the ballot box. The confidentiality declaration made by the tellers at the time of their election has special relevance when it comes to the nomination process in that they may already be able to deduce, from the number of nominations that the various nominees have received, who the next General is likely to be. The tellers return to the council chamber and the chief teller hands the result to the President. The President scrutinises the list and then reads out the list of nominees in alphabetical order – without indicating the number of nominations each has received. After a moment for reflection the President announces that the High Council will now adjourn so that those who have been nominated can consider whether or not to accept nomination. He announces the time when the Council will meet again to hear the response from the nominees. The nomination process is a sacred moment in the life of the Council. It is also a dramatic moment. Behind the nomination process lies history and drama and potential for difficulty that does not immediately meet the eye. To that we now turn. Selection by nomination The purpose of a nominating system is to produce a panel of 40
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candidates from which the choice of the next General can be made. Once the candidates have been identified the electoral body is then able to consider the qualities of each and to ask them to participate in the selection process by answering a series of questions and by addressing the Council. This scrutinising would not be possible under a system of direct election. To have a system of nominations, rather than proceeding straight to the election for General on the pattern of a papal conclave, was the first of three key procedural choices that the 1929 High Council made which set the pattern for the future. The decision to proceed by way of nominations was not dictated by the legal document establishing the High Council. The 1904 Supplementary Deed of Constitution does not mention nominations but simply says that ‘a High Council shall immediately … proceed to the election of the General’. In choosing to include nominations in the process, the members of the 1929 High Council may have been influenced by the revoked 1875 constitution of The Christian Mission in which nominations were required for the election of General Superintendents by Annual Conference. The system of nomination is now built into the legal framework through the Salvation Army Act 1980, the fourth Schedule of which states that ‘any candidate for election must be proposed by another person being a Council Member prior to the first ballot in which he is a candidate’. Selection by anonymous nomination The 1929 High Council made a second fundamental procedural choice when it decided that nominations would be anonymous. Unsigned nominations are in fact unusual in an elective process. The more usual practice is that one or more persons are required to openly nominate someone, often being expected to give the reasons why the person they are nominating should be considered for office. In the revoked 1875 constitution nominations for the office of General Superintendent were open, and had to ‘be made in writing, signed by the parties nominating’ 10 days before the meeting of the 41
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Annual Conference at which the election would take place. The 1929 High Council decided not to follow this precedent, and the pattern of anonymous nominations has been maintained by all subsequent High Councils. However, it is not a requirement of the Salvation Army Act 1980 which in its statement that a candidate ‘must be proposed’ by a member of the Council does not specify the method. The system of anonymous nominations has certain advantages. A key advantage is that it does not promote competitive ‘electioneering’ – something William Booth had feared an elective system might engender, and which the 1929 High Council wanted to avoid at all costs. Another advantage is that it lessens the danger of factions forming within the Council – with some, as the apostle Paul might have put it, belonging to Apollos and others belonging to Cephas. Yet a nomination system that is not open also has its disadvantages. One is that members who make a nomination do not know beforehand whether the officer they nominate will accept nomination. If the person they nominate declines nomination they in a sense have been disenfranchised. An exaggerated example may help to illustrate the point, but the point remains valid even in less extreme situations. If at a High Council there is an outstanding potential General – obviously ‘the one’ – most members might nominate that person. However, should that person decline nomination for, say, some health reason known only to himself or herself, the majority of the High Council will have ‘wasted’ their nominations. No one can know whether this disadvantage in a nomination system that is not open has in fact affected the outcome of past High Councils. But the problem is not hypothetical, for in three of the High Councils held to date more nominees have declined than have accepted – in 2002 six declined and only three accepted – and in a further three High Councils as many declined as accepted. There are no easy solutions to the problem. Potential nominees can hardly let it be known before the nomination stage of the Council that if nominated they will not accept. That would be 42
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thought presumptuous. One possibility, however, would be for members to discreetly and privately ask the person or persons (best in plural) whom they are considering as possible nominees whether they would accept nomination if – with accent on the ‘if’ – nominated. Such personal approaches have undoubtedly been made in the past, but are not without their own difficulties. Members may feel reticent about making such enquiries and the potential nominees may not feel that they can give a clear answer until they discover from the number of nominations received the degree of support that they have in the Council. Another disadvantage with the system of anonymous nominations is that no statement in support of the nomination is made to the Council. Over the course of the 18 High Councils held to date a number of nominations have been made for which the rationale has not been immediately self-evident. Had the one or more members making the nomination had opportunity to give the reasons why they were nominating that particular officer the picture might have been clearer. A further disadvantage with anonymous nominations has been the possibility of self-nomination. This matter has now been resolved, but the story is of historical interest. Until the 1963 High Council the Orders of Procedure were silent on the matter of whether members could nominate themselves. Whether any had done so in previous High Councils we have no way of knowing, but Commissioner Frederick Coutts felt strongly that this possibility should not be allowed. He writes about it in his memoirs: ‘In 1963 I had the temerity to move a resolution that “no member of the High Council shall propose himself or herself as nominee for the office of General”. I had raised the point tentatively in 1954, but felt myself so inexperienced among my seniors that I withdrew the proposal without pressing it to a vote. This time I determined to stand my ground. The resolution was seconded, given what was officially described as “very full and lengthy discussion” and was narrowly carried.’1 ‘No officer writes out his own marching orders,’ explained Frederick Coutts to his readers. ‘Nor can I write my own name in 43
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the “marching orders” for the office of General. Others may do that; I must not.’2 To later generations it is surprising that the possibility for selfnomination ever existed and that the proposal to close that option was only ‘narrowly carried’. It would seem that there was a considerable body of opinion that felt that self-nomination should remain an option. Self-nomination is now a legally closed option in that Schedule 4 of the Salvation Army Act 1980 states that a candidate must be proposed ‘by another person’. In a system of unsigned nominations there can of course be no check on whether someone has nominated himself or herself, but it is inconceivable that a member of the High Council would wish his or her candidacy for the office of the General to be based on a breach of trust. But recent changes in the number of votes required to effect a nomination have anyway eliminated for all time the possibility of someone becoming a nominee by self-nomination – as will be explained in the next section. In summary it can be said that the disadvantages associated with anonymous nominations are real and difficult to resolve. Yet the system is likely to remain in place, for the disadvantages of open nominations are even greater. It would be virtually impossible to have a system of open nominations without the Council becoming politicised and factions forming. This would be the ultimate negative which High Councils have rightly seen that at all costs they must avoid. Perhaps all of this goes to show that no human system is ever perfect and that it is a blessing that so much can be achieved with systems that inevitably are imperfect. Selection by a single nomination The third key procedural choice made by the 1929 High Council was that a single nomination, made by one member, was sufficient for the nomination to be effected. In this the 1929 High Council did not follow the precedent of the 1875 constitution by which candidates for the office of General Superintendent had to be nominated ‘by any twelve members of the 44
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last preceding [Annual] Conference’. Twelve was a high proportion of a Conference which at the time would have had only around 50 members. The decision of the 1929 High Council that just one nomination would be sufficient must be considered as unusual for a nominating process. Most nominating systems require at least two – a proposer and a seconder – for the nomination to become effective. That one unsigned nomination was sufficient to effect nomination opened up not only the possibility of self-nomination, as we have seen, but also increased the possibility of inappropriate nominations without ownership being made. The potential scope for inappropriate nominations was theoretically vast. The 1904 Supplementary Deed of Constitution decreed that ‘the person to be elected may be either one of the members of the High Council or some other person’ (my italics). That last phrase was astonishingly open. If taken literally, every member of the human race – already in 1904 about one and a half billion – was a potential nominee! It must have been the prophetic streak in William Booth that impelled him to place no restriction whatever on the High Council in the choice of a General. Yet the openness of the phrase was a danger, especially if linked with a system whereby one unsigned nomination could result in anybody in the world becoming a nominee. Considering that any person so nominated, whoever he or she might be, would have to be asked if he or she accepted nomination, and, if the reply was affirmative, would have to be invited to take part in the High Council, the mind boggles at what might have happened. However, with the membership of the High Council consisting of senior Army leaders, the danger was always more theoretical than real. In fact, with only one exception the High Council has never yet nominated anyone outside of its own membership. The exception occurred in 1954, when General Albert Orsborn, who had indicated that he wished to retire early, found himself nominated at the High Council called to elect his successor. Nonetheless, the wide 45
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openness of the phrase ‘some other person’ remained a troubling factor in the Army’s constitution. In 1980 General Arnold Brown took action on the matter. The Salvation Army Act of that year restricts the pool of potential nominees for the generalship to the Salvation Army officers of the world. No distinction is drawn in the Act between active and retired officers, but as the mandatory retirement age of the General is 68 the presumption is that only active officers will be nominated. That is still a vast pool of some 17,000 officers in active service, which continues to offer the potential for some unexpected nomination that might prove brilliantly insightful or one that might cause unnecessary delay. However, the constituency from which nominees can be drawn is now much more limited than it was before 1980. In a further development on the matter of single nominations, the Commission on the High Council recommended in 1995 that, as a safeguard, the threshold for a nomination to become effective should be raised from one to two votes. Additional impetus was given to that recommendation by the quite separate decision at this time that led to married women commissioners becoming eligible for membership of the High Council. The increased membership of the Council potentially increased the number of nominations, and this gave further reason for the threshold to be raised to two. General Paul A. Rader effected this amendment in 1995 by a Deed of Variation to Schedule 4. At the 1999 High Council – the first at which married women commissioners were present – the question arose as to whether a member could nominate his or her spouse. As Schedule 4 places no bar on this happening, it was ruled that it was in order for spouses to nominate each other. This in turn raised the question of whether even a threshold of two votes for nominations was high enough. In 2005 I took the initiative as General to have the threshold raised to three by a further amendment to Schedule 4 through a Deed of Variation. At the time there were those who felt that even three was too low and that it should be five. Their case was that if by the nomination stage of a High Council a person does not have 46
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the support of at least five out of around 115 members, that person is unlikely to be able to gain the required votes for election as General by simply answering a number of questions and making a speech. The argument is persuasive, but so too is the argument that the lower the threshold the greater the possibility for some inspired, indeed prophetic, nomination to be made. Perhaps the story has not yet reached its end. Summary To summarise this chapter, the three key procedural choices about nominations made by the 1929 High Council continue – with slight variation – to determine how a contemporary High Council works today. Candidates have first to be nominated, nominations are anonymous, and the threshold for nomination is low – but has risen from one to three. The drama of nominations, however, does not lie in the process but in the people involved – those who have to make the nominations, and those who find themselves nominated. These twin aspects will be considered in the next two chapters.
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